Chapter 13 - Governance and Financing of Elementary and Secondary Schools

The funds for public elementary and secondary schools are split between the federal government (8.8%), the state government (48.6%), and the local government (42.7%). The state that is ranked number one in operating districts and enrollment in public schools is California, followed by number two Texas, and number three New York. At the local level, there are important people such as the superintendent and the school boards. The superintendent is the chief administrator of the school district, and the school board is the governing body for the operation of a school district. At the state level, there is a state board of education (policy-making body), a state department of education (administrative agency), and a chief state school officer (serves as executive officer of the state board of education and administers the state department of education). The goals that are followed in order to distribute money are equity, adequacy, and choice. Equity refers to the equal treatment of persons in equal circumstances. Adequacy refers to the extent to which educational funding is sufficient to provide the programs and services needed by all students. Choice has two different goals; one goal is the local control of funding decisions and the other is to give parents the power to select the school that their child will attend. Some state finance programs are equalized foundation grants, equalized effort-oriented programs, full state funding, flat grants, categorical grants, and state spending differences. Certain issues that deal with the financing of education are the new federal roles, the expanded state and local responsibilities, accountability, funding an adequate education and the increases in school enrollment.

~DaNo~

Chapter 8 - The Social and Cultural Contexts of Schooling: Their Influence and Consequence

The big topic of this chapter that I retained are the social agents in society. They are the school, the family, technology, the workplace, the print media, the arts, sports, the electronic media, the peer group, the neighbourhood, the community, and the church. The functionalist perspective, the conflict theory perspective, and the interactionist perspective are the three perspectives on the purposes and expectations of schooling. The functionalist perspective sees education as essential for an orderly and efficient society and key concepts of this perspective are socialization and other functions. Their curriculum is official and hidden. The conflict theory perspective sees the educational system as perpetuating social inequality and key concepts of this perspective are the prestige hierarchy of the schools and the cultural capital. The interactionist perspective sees education as an interaction in the social setting of the school and key concepts of this perspective are labeling and self-fulfilling prophecies. There are a lot of statistics from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) and their diagrams are very interesting to analyze. The U.S. population is composed of mostly white, non-Hispanic people. After that, in order, are the Black non-Hispanic people, the Hispanics, the Asian/Pacific Islanders, and the Native Americans. The fastest growing minority in the U.S. are the Hispanic Americans. Most people believe that an equal education opportunity for everyone is impossible in the United States.

~DaNo~

Chapter 15 - Instructional Practices in Effective Schools

This chapter was about different instructional practices that are associated with effective teaching methods. Educational goals are "general statements about directions toward which we want learning outcomes to lead." Educational objectives are "clearly defined, observable, and measurable student outcome that indicates learner progress toward the achievement of a particular educational goal. There are eight intelligences: verbal-linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, musical intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence and naturalist intelligence. Every person has a part of all of these eight intelligences, the amount per intelligence just differs from person to person. There are four main models of instruction: family, the social family, the personal family, and the behavioural systems family. These four families differ in their orientation. The information processing family focuses on a student-centered orientation that resembles constructivism. Examples of this model are inquiry instruction, critical thinking instruction and synectics. The social family focuses on a student-centered orientation that resembles progressivism. Examples of this model are cooperative learning and problem-based instruction. The personal family focuses on a student-centered orientation that resembles Rogerian counseling. An example of this model is non directive instruction. Lastly, the behavioural systems family focuses on a teacher-centered orientation that resembles behaviourism. Examples of this model are direct instruction and mastery learning. Students vary in many different ways, and one way is the way the learn things. The imaginative learner, the analytic learner, the commonsense learner, and the dynamic learner are the four main types of learners.

~DaNo~

Chapter 14 - The School Curriculum: Development and Design

When making a curriculum, there are four questions that need to be asked and answered: 1. Who initiates the curriculum? 2. Who determines properties? 3. Who implements the curriculum? 4. Who is responsible for what happens? There are three major curriculum developments, and they are the following: prescriptive perspective, deliberative perspective, and critical perspective. The prescriptive perspective is the technical production perspective, where the curriculum planning is viewed as an objective, linear process. Planning its curriculum is a four-stop process. You start by identifying the purpose, aims, and goals. Next you identify and select the learning experiences. After this you organize the learning experiences, and then finish off with the evaluation. The descriptive perspective is the deliberative perspective that focuses on how curriculum decision making occurs in practice. This curriculum decision making happens in three phases: platform, deliberation, design. The critical perspective is the artistic perspective that views curriculum decision making as embodying educational imagination and transformation. The development of this curriculum is consensus building. It has an emphasis on learning events that are meaningful, has a need for deliberation in establishing priorities, has multiple modes of presentation and takes into consideration a nonlinear, cross-curriculum content organization. There are six different curriculum designs: 1. Subject-area (essentialism) 2. Integrated 3. Core (perennalism) 4. Student-centered (progressivism) 5. Constructivism (progressivism, social reconstructivism, postmodernism) 6. Social justice (social reconstructivism, postmodernism) Each of these curriculum designs have similarities and differences. Different forces that can influence the curriculum are the national curriculum standards, textbooks, mandated assessments, state governments, teachers, local school boards, parent and community groups, as well as the federal government.

~DaNo~

Chapter 12 - Teachers, Students, and the Law

Every teacher, or any employee I should say, has certain rights and responsibilities. This chapter discusses the rights and responsibilities related to terms and conditions of employment, teacher dismissal, teacher rights inside and outside the classroom, tort liability, discrimination, equal opportunity and affirmative action, and certain legal responsibilities of teachers. Education laws are different, depending on which State you are teaching in. In order to be a teacher, not only do you need certification, but you also need to be a citizen of (or reside in) the United States. Another requirement to be a teacher is to have a health and physical test done, as well as sign an employment contract. In order for this contract to be valid, there are certain basic elements that it needs to contain. These elements are the following: offer and acceptance, legally competent parties, consideration (compensation), legal subject matter, and agreement in the form required by law. This chapter also discusses teacher dismissal, which is the termination of employment during the term of the contract. Dismissal can be challenged, and usually the challenge revolves around two issues: whether the conduct in question fits the statutory grounds for dismissal and if so, whether the school board presented the facts necessary to sustain the charge. A few examples of reasons for dismissal are immorality, incompetency, and insubordination. Teachers have the right to express themselves, as long as they do not affect their teaching negatively. Freedom from employment discrimination and sexual harassment are two very important rights that teachers have. Other than rights, teachers also have certain legal responsibilities that they must follow in order to be a teacher and to keep their job. These responsibilities are reporting child abuse and neglect, and observing copyrights. The major type of student discipline that teachers use are suspensions and expulsions. Corporal punishment is only allowed in certain states, and is most often done by the principal, in the presence of another adult. This chapter was very interesting because it explained a lot of what teachers can and can not do.

~DaNo~

Chapter 7 - Modern American Education: From The Progressive Movement To The Present

This chapter is about how much education has changed and evolved from different points in time. Starting from the twentieth century unfolds, to the progressivism in education, to the postwar years, to Sputnik to the new federalism, to the 1990s, to the new century beginning. Important people to recognize in the beginnings of progressive education are John Dewey (in favor of the child-centered curriculum) and Ella Flagg Young. Other parts looked at during the progressive education times are the influences on higher education and the second world war, the child study movement, the measurement movement, and education during the great depression. The war had a great impact on schools because of teachers leaving and being enrolled in the army, as well as students not returning in order to work. In the postwar years, the most important thing was the Montessori movement, which has interest and motivation at the heart of the curriculum. The Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka had a huge impact on the civil rights movement. The 1970's brought retreat and retrenchment, the 1980's brought renewed conservatism and reform, where as the 1990's brought national goals, national standards, and choices. The new century begins with the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), which was offered by the president at the time, George W. Bush. This act required students in grades 3-8 to take tests in reading and math every year, and again in grades 10-12. The NCLB created new and expanded roles for the state and federal governments, as well as challenges for school districts.

~DaNo~

Chapter 11 - Legal Framework For The Public Schools

This chapter was pretty much exactly what the title says it is. It talks mostly about the different laws and what is legal/illegal when it comes to education. The federal government has no say in education, as it is reserved to the States to do so. The federal court system consists of three levels of courts of general jurisdiction: a supreme court, district courts, and courts of appeals. What I found most interesting is that there are thirteen different circuit courts. Twelve of those thirteen have jurisdiction over a specific geographic area, where as the thirteenth has jurisdiction to hear appeals in specific areas of federal law, called the Federal Circuit. A big controversy in education is the religious aspect, more so the religious activities in public schools. Some example of religious activities are: prayer and bible reading, prayer at school-sponsored events, the pledge of allegiance, religion displays and observances, wearing of religious attire, distribution of religious literature, religious access to school buildings and released time for religious instruction. Attendance at school is mandatory between the ages of 7 to 16, whether it is a private school, public school, or home schooled. A fact in this chapter that I found very interesting was the one about homeschooling, and how much it has grown over the years. In 1994, 600,000 children were home schooled, compared to 1.1 million in 2003.

~DaNo~